Formación de cristales de calcio dentro del foco epiléptico de un modelo de epilepsia in vivo

Contenido principal del artículo

Tessy López-Goerne
Rafael Valiente
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-3216-7066
Emilio Chávez
Antonella González-Bondani
Joaquín Manjarrez
Francisco Javier Padilla-Godínez

Resumen

La epilepsia representa un importante problema de salud, al estimarse su afectación a 2 millones de individuos en México —los pacientes sufren más de 70 convulsiones diarias—. En el presente estudio se indujo epilepsia refractaria en ratas Wistar mediante estimulación repetida con pentilentetrazol (PTZ), de una a cien estimulaciones. El tejido del hipocampo se analizó mediante microscopía electrónica de barrido (SEM) y espectroscopía de rayos X de energía dispersiva (EDS). Se observó la formación de cristales sólidos de carbonato cálcico (CaCO3) dentro del foco epiléptico. En particular, la concentración de CaCO3 mostró una correlación directa con el número de estimulaciones, lo cual sugiere un aumento progresivo en el curso de estos eventos. Este estudio plantea una hipótesis, la cual elucida el mecanismo subyacente a la formación de cristales de CaCO3 en respuesta a las convulsiones inducidas por PTZ. Es necesario seguir investigando para determinar si existe una correlación entre la desregulación de los iones de calcio (Ca2+) en la epilepsia y la formación de CaCO3. Esta investigación abre vías para una comprensión más profunda y posibles avances en el diagnóstico de la epilepsia y los trastornos neurológicos relacionados.

Descargas

Los datos de descargas todavía no están disponibles.

Detalles del artículo

Cómo citar
López-Goerne, T., Valiente, R., Chávez, E., González-Bondani, A., Manjarrez, J., & Padilla-Godínez, F. J. (2024). Formación de cristales de calcio dentro del foco epiléptico de un modelo de epilepsia in vivo. Mundo Nano. Revista Interdisciplinaria En Nanociencias Y Nanotecnología, 18(35), e69831. https://doi.org/10.22201/ceiich.24485691e.2025.35.69831
Sección
Artículos de investigación

Citas

Akita, Tenpei and Atsuo Fukuda. (2020). Intracellular Cl− Dysregulation causing and caused by pathogenic neuronal activity. Pflügers Archiv – European Journal of Physiology, 472(7): 977-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-020-02375-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-020-02375-4

Anzellotti, Francesca, Fedele Dono, Giacomo Evangelista, Martina Di Pietro, Claudia Carrarini, Mirella Russo, Camilla Ferrante, Stefano L. Sensi and Marco Onofrj. (2020). Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures and pseudo-refractory epilepsy, a management challenge. Frontiers in Neurology, 11(June). https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00461. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00461

Auer, Theresa, Philipp Schreppel, Thomas Erker and Christoph Schwarzer. (2020). Impaired chloride homeostasis in epilepsy: molecular basis, impact on treatment and current treatment approaches. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 205(January): 107422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.107422. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.107422

Becker, Z. E. (1936). A comparison between the action of carbonic acid and other acids upon the living cell. Protoplasma 25(1): 161-75. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01839067. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01839067

Beghi, Ettore. (2020). The epidemiology of epilepsy. Neuroepidemiology, 54(2): 185-91. https://doi.org/10.1159/000503831. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000503831

Begley, Charles, Ryan G. Wagner, Annette Abraham, Ettore Beghi, Charles Newton, Churl‐Su Kwon, David Labiner and Andrea S. Winkler. (2022). The global cost of epilepsy: a systematic review and extrapolation. Epilepsia, 63(4): 892-903. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.17165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.17165

Benaim, Gustavo, Alberto E. Paniz-Mondolfi, Emilia Mia Sordillo and Nathalia Martínez-Sotillo. (2020). Disruption of intracellular calcium homeostasis as a therapeutic target against trypanosoma cruzi. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 10(February). https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.00046. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.00046

Ben-Ari, Yehezkel. (2002). Excitatory actions of gaba during development: the nature of the nurture. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3 (9): 728-39. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn920. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn920

Bojarski, Lukasz, Jochen Herms and Jacek Kuznicki. (2008). Calcium dysregulation in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurochemistry International, 52(4-5): 621-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2007.10.002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2007.10.002

Brenner, Robert, Karen S. Wilcox, Jeffrey L. Noebels, Massimo Avoli, Michael A. Rogawski, Richard W. Olsen, Antonio V. Delgado-Escueta (eds.). (2012). Potassium channelopathies of epilepsy. En Jasper’s basic mechanisms of the epilepsies. 4a ed. Bethesda (MD): National Center for Biotechnology Information (US).

Bushinsky, D. A. and R. J. Lechleider. (1987). Mechanism of proton-induced bone calcium release: calcium carbonate-dissolution. American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology, 253(5): F998-1005. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.1987.253.5.F998. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.1987.253.5.F998

Calì, Tito, Denis Ottolini and Marisa Brini. (2014). Calcium signaling in Parkinson’s disease. Cell and Tissue Research, 357(2): 439-54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-014-1866-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-014-1866-0

Calvo-Rodríguez, María, Elizabeth K. Kharitonova and Brian J. Bacskai. (2020). Therapeutic strategies to target calcium dysregulation in Alzheimer’s disease. Cells, 9(11): 2513. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9112513. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9112513

Campbell, Iain L., Thomas Krucker, Scott Steffensen, Yvette Akwa, Henry C. Powell, Thomas Lane, Daniel J. Carr, Lisa H. Gold, Steven J. Henriksen and George R. Siggins. (1999). Structural and functional neuropathology in transgenic mice with CNS expression of IFN-Α1 published on the World Wide Web on 17 March, 1999.1. Brain Research, 835(1): 46-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(99)01328-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(99)01328-1

Catterall, William A. (2014). Sodium channels, inherited epilepsy y antiepileptic drugs. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 54(1): 317-38. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-011112-140232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-011112-140232

Chen, Tsang-Shan, Tzu-Hsin Huang, Ming-Chi Lai and Chin-Wei Huang. (2023). The role of glutamate receptors in epilepsy. Biomedicines, 11(3): 783. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11030783. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11030783

Cheville, N. F. and J. Stasko. (2014). Techniques in electron microscopy of animal tissue. Veterinary Pathology, 51(1): 28-41. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300985813505114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0300985813505114

Clapham, David E. (1995). Calcium signaling. Cell, 80(2): 259-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(95)90408-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(95)90408-5

Dhir, Ashish. (2012). Pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) kindling model of epilepsy. Current Protocols in Neuroscience, 58(1). https://doi.org/10.1002/0471142301.ns0937s58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/0471142301.ns0937s58

Ding, Fengfei, Qian Sun, Carter Long, Rune Nguyen Rasmussen, Sisi Peng, Qiwu Xu, Ning Kang et al. (2024). Dysregulation of extracellular potassium distinguishes healthy ageing from neurodegeneration. Brain, 147(5): 1726-39. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awae075. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awae075

Dodd, Antony N., Jörg Kudla and Dale Sanders. (2010). The language of calcium signaling. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 61(1): 593-620. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-070109-104628. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-070109-104628

Dreier, J. P. and U. Heinemann. (1991). Regional and time dependent variations of low Mg2+ induced epileptiform activity in rat temporal cortex slices. Experimental Brain Research, 87(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00227083. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00227083

Elger, Christian E., Christoph Helmstaedter and Martin Kurthen. (2004). Chronic epilepsy and cognition. The Lancet Neurology, 3(11): 663-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00906-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00906-8

Engel, Jerome, Asla Pitkänen, Jeffrey A. Loeb, F. Edward Dudek, Edward H. Bertram, Andrew J. Cole, Solomon L. Moshé et al. (2013). Epilepsy biomarkers. Epilepsia, 54(s4): 61-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.12299. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.12299

Falco-Walter, Jessica. (2020). Epilepsy – Definition, classification, pathophysiology and epidemiology. Seminars in Neurology, 40(06): 617-23. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1718719. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1718719

Froberg, K., R. P. Dorion and K. E. McMartin. (2006). The role of calcium oxalate crystal deposition in cerebral vessels during ethylene glycol poisoning. Clinical Toxicology, 44(3): 315-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650600588460. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650600588460

Ghosh, Shampa, Jitendra Kumar Sinha, Tarab Khan, Kuramkote Shivanna Devaraju, Prabhakar Singh, Kumar Vaibhav and Pankaj Gaur. (2021). Pharmacological and therapeutic approaches in the treatment of epilepsy. Biomedicines, 9(5): 470. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9050470. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9050470

Girardi‐Schappo, Mauricio, Fatemeh Fadaie, Hyo Min Lee, Benoit Caldairou, Viviane Sziklas, Joelle Crane, Boris C. Bernhardt, Andrea Bernasconi and Neda Bernasconi. (2021). Altered communication dynamics reflect cognitive deficits in temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia, 62(4): 1022-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.16864. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.16864

Gleichmann, Marc and Mark P. Mattson. (2011). Neuronal calcium homeostasis and dysregulation. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, 14(7): 1261-73. https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2010.3386. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2010.3386

Goldstein, Joseph I., Dale E. Newbury, Joseph R. Michael, Nicholas W. M. Ritchie, John Henry J. Scott and David C. Joy. (2018). Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis. Nueva York, NY: Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-6676-9.

Grisar, Thierry. (1984). Glial and neuronal Na+–K+ pump in epilepsy. Annals of Neurology, 16(S1): S128-34. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410160719. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410160719

Grosskreutz, Julian, Ludo van den Bosch and Bernhard U. Keller. (2010). Calcium dysregulation in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Cell Calcium, 47(2): 165-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceca.2009.12.002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceca.2009.12.002

Guery, Deborah and Sylvain Rheims. (2021). Clinical management of drug resistant epilepsy: a review on current strategies. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 17(July): 2229-42. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S256699. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S256699

Guzmán-Jiménez, Diana Elena, Jaime Berumen Campos, Carlos Alberto Venegas-Vega, Mariana Alejandre Sánchez and Ana Luisa Velasco. (2020). Familial mesial temporal lobe epilepsy in Mexico: inheritance pattern and clinical features. Epilepsy Research, 167(November): 106450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2020.106450. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2020.106450

Harvey, Jean A., Margaret M. Zobitz and Charles Y. C. Pak. (1988). Dose dependency of calcium absorption: a comparison of calcium carbonate and calcium citrate. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 3(3): 253-58. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.5650030303. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.5650030303

Heinemann, U., A. Konnerth, R. Pumain y W. J. Wadman. (1986). Extracellular calcium and potassium concentration changes in chronic epileptic brain tissue. Advances in Neurology, 44: 641-61.

Helmstaedter, Christoph, Martin Kurthen, Silke Lux, Markus Reuber and Christian Erich Elger. (2003). Chronic epilepsy and cognition: a longitudinal study in temporal lobe epilepsy. Annals of Neurology, 54(4): 425-32. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.10692. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.10692

Hotka, Matej and Helmut Kubista. (2019). The paroxysmal depolarization shift in epilepsy research. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, 107(February): 77-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocel.2018.12.006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocel.2018.12.006

Ives-Deliperi, Victoria and James T. Butler. (2021). Mechanisms of cognitive impairment in temporal lobe epilepsy: a systematic review of resting-state functional connectivity studies. Epilepsy & Behavior, 115(February): 107686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107686. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107686

Janson, Marnie T. and Jacquelyn L. Bainbridge. (2021). Continuing burden of refractory epilepsy. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 55(3): 406-8. https://doi.org/10.1177/1060028020948056. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1060028020948056

Jiang, C. and G. G. Haddad. (1991). Effect of anoxia on intracellular and extracellular potassium activity in hypoglossal neurons in vitro. Journal of Neurophysiology, 66(1): 103-11. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1991.66.1.103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1991.66.1.103

Kawamata, Hibiki and Giovanni Manfredi. (2010). Mitochondrial dysfunction and intracellular calcium dysregulation in ALS. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 131(7-8): 517-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mad.2010.05.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mad.2010.05.003

Kempen, Paul J., Moritz F. Kircher, Adam de la Zerda, Cristina L. Zavaleta, Jesse V. Jokerst, Ingo K. Mellinghoff, Sanjiv S. Gambhir and Robert Sinclair. (2015). A correlative optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy approach to locating nanoparticles in brain tumors. Micron, 68(January): 70-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2014.09.004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2014.09.004

Knott, Graham, Herschel Marchman, David Wall and Ben Lich. (2008). Serial section scanning electron microscopy of adult brain tissue using focused ion beam milling. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28(12): 2959-64. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3189-07.2008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3189-07.2008

Knott, Graham, Stéphanie Rosset and Marco Cantoni. (2011). Focussed ion beam milling and scanning electron microscopy of brain tissue. Journal of Visualized Experiments, 53(July). https://doi.org/10.3791/2588. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3791/2588

Kovac, Stjepana, Albena Dinkova Kostova, Alexander Herrmann, Nico Melzer, Sven Meuth and Ali Gorji. (2017). Metabolic and homeostatic changes in seizures and acquired epilepsy – Mitochondria, calcium dynamics and reactive oxygen species. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18(9): 1935. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18091935. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18091935

Kraus-Friedmann, N. (1990). Calcium sequestration in the liver. Cell Calcium, 11(10): 625-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0143-4160(90)90017-O. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0143-4160(90)90017-O

Kubista, Helmut, Stefan Boehm and Matej Hotka. (2019). The paroxysmal depolarization shift: reconsidering its role in epilepsy, epileptogenesis and beyond. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(3): 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20030577. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20030577

Kwan, Patrick, Alexis Arzimanoglou, Anne T. Berg, Martin J. Brodie, W. Allen Hauser, Gary Mathern, Solomon L. Moshé, Emilio Perucca, Samuel Wiebe and Jacqueline French. (2010). Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc task force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia, 51(6): 1069-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02397.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02397.x

Leal, Sonia S. and Claudio M. Gomes. (2015). Calcium dysregulation links ALS defective proteins and motor neuron selective vulnerability. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 9(June). https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2015.00225. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2015.00225

Lenton, Samuel, Tommy Nylander, Susana C. M. Teixeira and Carl Holt. (2015). A review of the biology of calcium phosphate sequestration with special reference to milk. Dairy Science & Technology, 95(1): 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13594-014-0177-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13594-014-0177-2

Lerche, Holger. (2020). Drug-resistant epilepsy – Time to target mechanisms. Nature Reviews Neurology, 16(11): 595-96. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-020-00419-y. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-020-00419-y

Lévesque, Maxime, David Ragsdale and Massimo Avoli. (2019). Evolving mechanistic concepts of epileptiform synchronization and their relevance in curing focal epileptic disorders. Current Neuropharmacology, 17(9): 830-42. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X17666181127124803. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X17666181127124803

Lewis, Amanda J., Christel Genoud, Mélissa Pont, Wilma D. J. van de Berg, Stephan Frank, Henning Stahlberg, Sarah H. Shahmoradian and Ashraf Al-Amoudi. (2019). Imaging of post-mortem human brain tissue using electron and X-ray microscopy. Current Opinion in Structural Biology, 58(October):138-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbi.2019.06.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbi.2019.06.003

Löscher, Wolfgang. (2017). Animal models of seizures and epilepsy: past, present and future role for the discovery of antiseizure drugs. Neurochemical Research, 42(7): 1873-88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-017-2222-z. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-017-2222-z

Ludtmann, Marthe H. R. and Andrey Y. Abramov. (2018). Mitochondrial calcium imbalance in Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience Letters, 663(January):86-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2017.08.044. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2017.08.044

Moore, L., T. Chen, H. R. Knapp and E. J. Landon. (1975). Energy-dependent cal- cium sequestration activity in rat liver microsomes. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 250(12): 4562-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9258(19)41338-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9258(19)41338-0

Movsesian, M. (1998). Calcium sequestration by the sarcoplasmic reticulum in heart failure. Cardiovascular Research, 37(2): 352-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6363(97)00259-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6363(97)00259-9

Newbury, Dale E. (2005). Misidentification of major constituents by automatic qualitative energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis: a problem that threatens the credibility of the analytical community. Microscopy and Microanalysis, 11(6): 545-61. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1431927605050531. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1431927605050531

Novak, Ajda, Karmen Vizjak and Martin Rakusa. (2022). Cognitive impairment in people with epilepsy. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(1): 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11010267. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11010267

Ohgushi, Hajime, Motoaki Okumura, Takafumi Yoshikawa, Keisuke Inboue, Norio Senpuku, Susumu Tamai and Edwin C. Shors. (1992). Bone formation pro- cessin porous calcium carbonate and hydroxyapatite. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, 26(7): 885-95. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.820260705. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.820260705

Oyrer, Julia, Snezana Maljevic, Ingrid E. Scheffer, Samuel F. Berkovic, Steven Petrou and Christopher A. Reid. (2018). Ion channels in genetic epilepsy: from genes and mechanisms to disease-targeted therapies. Pharmacological Reviews, 70(1): 142-73. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.117.014456. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.117.014456

Perucca, Emilio. (2021). The pharmacological treatment of epilepsy: recent advances and future perspectives. Acta Epileptologica, 3(1): 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42494-021-00055-z. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s42494-021-00055-z

Perucca, Piero, Melanie Bahlo and Samuel F. Berkovic. (2020). The genetics of epilepsy. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 21(1): 205-30. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genom-120219-074937. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genom-120219-074937

Pesqueira, Gerardo Quiñones, Daniel San-Juan, Rosana Huerta Albarrán, Máximo León Vázquez, Gerardo Quiñones Canales and Jorge González Pesqueira. (2023). A systematic review of the epidemiology of epilepsy in Mexico during 1970 to 2020. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria, 81(01): 074-080. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-1758647. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-1758647

Pires, Geoffrey, Dominique Leitner, Eleanor Drummond, Evgeny Kanshin, Shruti Nayak, Manor Askenazi, Arline Faustin et al. (2021). Proteomic differences in the hippocampus and cortex of epilepsy brain tissue. Brain Communications, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcab021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcab021

Pumain, R., C. Menini, U. Heinemann, J. Louvel and C. Silva-Barrat. (1985). Chemical synaptic transmission is not necessary for epileptic seizures to persist in the baboon Papio papio. Experimental Neurology, 89(1): 250-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-4886(85)90280-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-4886(85)90280-8

Raimondo, Joseph V., Richard J. Burman, Arieh A. Katz and Colin J. Akerman. (2015). Ion dynamics during seizures. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 9(October). https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2015.00419. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2015.00419

Rho, Jong M. and Detlev Boison. (2022). The metabolic basis of epilepsy. Nature Reviews Neurology 18(6): 333-47. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-022-00651-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-022-00651-8

Riva, Antonella, Alice Golda, Ganna Balagura, Elisabetta Amadori, Maria Stella Vari, Gianluca Piccolo, Michele Iacomino et al. (2021). New trends and most promising therapeutic strategies for epilepsy treatment. Frontiers in Neurology, 12(December). https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.753753. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.753753

Rozensztrauch, Anna and Aleksandra Kołtuniuk. (2022). The quality of life of children with epilepsy and the impact of the disease on the family functioning. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(4): 2277. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042277. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042277

Rubio, Carmen, Rudy Luna, Monserrat Ibarra-Velasco and Ángel Lee. (2021). Epilepsy: a bibliometric analysis (1968-2020) of the Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía ‘Manuel Velasco Suárez’ in Mexico. Epilepsy & Behavior, 115(February): 107676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107676. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107676

Samokhina, E. and Alexander Samokhin. (2018). Neuropathological profile of the pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) kindling model. International Journal of Neuroscience, 128(11): 1086-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207454.2018.1481064. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207454.2018.1481064

Sarlo, Gabrielle L. and Kathleen F. Holton. (2021). Brain concentrations of glutamate and GABA in human epilepsy: a review. Seizure, 91(October): 213-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2021.06.028. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2021.06.028

Schapira, Anthony H. V. (2013). Calcium dysregulation in Parkinson’s disease. Brain, 136(7): 2015-16. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt180. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt180

Scharfman, Helen E. (2007). The neurobiology of epilepsy. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 7(4): 348-54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-007-0053-z. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-007-0053-z

Schneider, Gerd, Peter Guttmann, Stefan Heim, Stefan Rehbein, Florian Mueller, Kunio Nagashima, J. Bernard Heymann, Waltraud G. Müller and James G. McNally. (2010). Three-dimensional cellular ultrastructure resolved by X-ray microscopy. Nature Methods, 7(12): 985-87. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1533. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1533

Siesjö, Bo K. (1986). Cellular calcium metabolism, seizures y ischemia. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 61(4): 299-302. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-6196(12)61935-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-6196(12)61935-1

Singh, Tanveer, Awanish Mishra and Rajesh Kumar Goel. (2021). PTZ kindling model for epileptogenesis, refractory epilepsy, and associated comorbidities: relevance and reliability. Metabolic Brain Disease, 36(7): 1573-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11011-021-00823-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11011-021-00823-3

Spampanato, Jay, Ildiko Aradi, Ivan Soltesz and Alan L. Goldin. (2004). Increased neuronal firing in computer simulations of sodium channel mutations that cause generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus. Journal of Neurophysiology, 91(5): 2040-50. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00982.2003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00982.2003

Spiller, Allison E. y Ronald J. Racine. (1994). The effect of kindling beyond the ‘Stage 5’ criterion on paired-pulse depression and hilar cell counts in the dentate gyrus. Brain Research, 635(1-2): 139-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(94)91433-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(94)91433-8

Steinlein, Ortrud K. (2014). Calcium signaling and epilepsy. Cell and Tissue Research, 357(2): 385-93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-014-1849-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-014-1849-1

Strzelczyk, Adam, Angel Aledo-Serrano, Antonietta Coppola, Adrien Didelot, Elizabeth Bates, Ricardo Sainz-Fuertes and Charlotte Lawthom. (2023). The impact of epilepsy on quality of life: findings from a European survey. Epilepsy & Behavior, 142(May): 109179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2023.109179. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2023.109179

Sultana, Bushra, Marie-Andrée Panzini, Ariane Veilleux Carpentier, Jacynthe Comtois, Bastien Rioux, Geneviève Gore, Prisca R. Bauer et al. (2021). Incidence and prevalence of drug-resistant epilepsy. Neurology, 96(17): 805-17. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000011839. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000011839

Sun, Jinyi, Yang Zheng, Zhong Chen and Yi Wang. (2022). The role of Na+ – K+ – ATPase in the epileptic brain. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 28(9): 1294-1302. https://doi.org/10.1111/cns.13893. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cns.13893

Symonds, Joseph D. and Amy McTague. (2020). Epilepsy and developmental disorders: next generation sequencing in the clinic. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 24(January):15-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2019.12.008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2019.12.008

Tian, Guo-Feng, Hooman Azmi, Takahiro Takano, Qiwu Xu, Weiguo Peng, Jane Lin, NancyAnn Oberheim et al. (2005). An astrocytic basis of epilepsy. Nature Medicine, 11(9): 973-81. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1277. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1277

Toro Pérez, Juan Enrique, Ana Suller Martí, Manuel Herrera Aramburu, Juan Bottan and Jorge G. Burneo. (2020). Epilepsia del lóbulo temporal plus: revisión. Revista de Neurología, 71(06): 225. https://doi.org/10.33588/rn.7106.2020339. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33588/rn.7106.2020339

Tryba, Andrew K., Edward M. Merricks, Somin Lee, Tuan Pham, SungJun Cho, Douglas R. Nordli, Tahra L. Eissa et al. (2019). Role of paroxysmal depolarization in focal seizure activity. Journal of Neurophysiology, 122(5): 1861-73. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00392.2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00392.2019

Tsolaki, Elena and Sergio Bertazzo. (2019). Pathological mineralization: the potential of mineralomics. Materials, 12(19): 3126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12193126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12193126

Vonck, Kristl, Arnaud Biraben, Magdalena Bosak, Poul Jørgen Jennum, Vasilios K. Kimiskidis, Petr Marusic, James W. Mitchell et al. (2023). Usage and impact of patient‐reported outcomes in epilepsy. Brain and Behavior, 13(12). https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.3342. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.3342

Wang, Yong, Yun Shi and Huafeng Wei. (2017). Calcium dysregulation in Alzheimer’s disease: a target for new drug development. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease & Parkinsonism, 7(5). https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0460.1000374. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0460.1000374

WHO. (2024). Epilepsy. World Health Organization. February 7, 2024.

Wiechers, H. N. S, P Sturrock and G. V. R. Marais. (1975). Calcium carbonate crystallization kinetics. Water Research, 9(9): 835-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(75)90143-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(75)90143-8

Wojda, Urszula, Elzbieta Salinska and Jacek Kuznicki. (2008). Calcium ions in neuronal degeneration. IUBMB Life, 60(9): 575-90. https://doi.org/10.1002/iub.91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/iub.91

Wu, Dongyan, Feiyan Chang, Dantao Peng, Sheng Xie, Xiaoxuan Li and Wenjing Zheng. (2020). The morphological characteristics of hippocampus and thalamus in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. BMC Neurology, 20(1): 235. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-020-01817-x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-020-01817-x

Wyroba, Elżbieta, Szymon Suski, Karolina Miller and Rafał Bartosiewicz. (2015). Biomedical and agricultural applications of energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy in electron microscopy. Cellular and Molecular Biology Letters, 20(3). https://doi.org/10.1515/cmble-2015-0028. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/cmble-2015-0028

Yu, Jin-Tai, Raymond Chuen-Chung Chang and Lan Tan. (2009). Calcium dysregulation in Alzheimer’s disease: from mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. Progress in Neurobiology, 89(3): 240-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.07.009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.07.009

Zündorf, Gregor and Georg Reiser. (2011). Calcium dysregulation and homeostasis of neural calcium in the molecular mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases provide multiple targets for neuroprotection. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, 14(7): 1275-88. https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2010.3359. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2010.3359